In a June 2025 article published on Opinio Juris, Melanie O’Brien, Associate Professor of International Law at the University of Western Australia, and Javaid Rehman, former UN Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Iran, examine two deeply concerning issues in the country: systemic discrimination against women and girls, and the state’s escalating use of arbitrary executions.
The authors note that these violations are not new. “The Iranian regime is and has been brutal and violent since its inception through the Iranian revolution of 1979.” Persistent patterns of abuse include “violation of the right to freedom of assembly through violence against and arrests of protestors; arbitrary detentions; torture and cruel treatment; discrimination against minorities; enforced disappearances; cruel and inhuman punishments; the use of the death penalty as a tool of political repression; and systematic discrimination against women and girls.”
Following the death of Jina Mahsa Amini in custody of security forces in 2022 and the emergence of nationwide protests, the UN Human Rights Council established the Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Islamic Republic of Iran (FFMI). Originally focused on abuses related to the protests, the FFMI’s mandate was expanded in March 2025 to investigate broader, ongoing violations.
Gender Apartheid and Legalized Violence
Rehman observes that Iranian authorities “have maintained a system of gender apartheid,” marked by “draconian laws, policies and practices” that violate the rights of girls and women. Criminal liability for girls begins at nine lunar years for qisas (retribution) and hudud (fixed penalties), and the legal age for marriage remains 13, with even younger marriages permitted with judicial approval. “Child marriages are forced marriages and inherently destructive to the life of the girl child.”
Women face systemic barriers in public life. They cannot head the judiciary, and though they may sit on judicial panels, “Iranian law prohibits them from rendering a final judgment.” Moreover, the Iranian regime’s Penal Code “expressly permits a man who witnesses his wife committing adultery to kill or assault either or both parties.”
A 2024 law titled Protection of the Family through Promoting the Culture of Hijab and Chastity aimed to enforce strict hijab requirements through 71 articles. It imposed steep fines and potential imprisonment for women failing to comply, extended penalties to civil servants and business owners, and empowered intelligence agencies to enforce the rules. UN experts condemned the law, stating on 13 December 2024: “[t]he new hijab law marks an intensification of state control over women’s bodies in Iran and is a further assault on women’s rights and freedoms.” Following this criticism, Iran’s National Security Council paused the law, allegedly due to “ambiguity in the legislation,” though the authors argue international pressure played a key role.
Le régime iranien renforce la présence policière dans les écoles pour faire respecter le port du hijab et réprimer la dissidence des élèves https://t.co/uKRMcSTNkO pic.twitter.com/qH0QmkYRV0
— Iran Focus (@Iran_Focus) April 22, 2025
Arbitrary Executions as State Repression
Iran remains “the highest known executioner per capita amongst all countries.” In 2024, “at least 901 people were reportedly executed,” a 6% increase from the previous year. The regime applies the death penalty for over 80 offenses, including moharebeh (taking up arms), efsad-e fel-arz (spreading corruption), and baghy (armed rebellion), along with drug offenses, apostasy, and repeated alcohol consumption.
Iranian Prisoners Sound Alarm as Regime Escalates Executions
Executions disproportionately target ethnic and religious minorities, juveniles, and women—many based on coerced confessions. “At least 31 women were executed in 2024, the highest number of executions of women in any country in the world.” The authors describe this as “the worst form of state-sanctioned violence against women and girls.”
Rehman also recalls past atrocities. In a 2024 UN report, he documented “summary, arbitrary and extra-judicial executions of thousands of arbitrarily imprisoned political opponents,” including the 1988 massacre. These acts, he argues, amount to “crimes against humanity of murder and extermination, as well as genocide.” Victims included many women and children; some women were reportedly raped before execution.
The Demand for Accountability
The authors call on Iran to “respect the fundamental human rights and dignity of all girls and women; end gender apartheid in Iranian society; eliminate in law and in practice all forms of persecution of and discrimination and violence against women and girls.” They further urge Iran’s regime to “immediately end the barbaric arbitrary practice of the death penalty.”
However, they emphasize that the absence of accountability remains a major obstacle: “If accountability is denied for abuses committed over 30 years ago, there is little to no chance of justice within the regime for recent and current abuses.” Their 2024 report drew sharp backlash from Iranian authorities, underscoring the regime’s resistance to scrutiny.
Still, international pressure has shown impact, as seen with the hijab law’s suspension. The authors urge continued support for Iran-focused UN mechanisms and direct diplomatic pressure: “There must be an end to the continuing impunity of this regime; all victims and their families deserve justice and accountability.”
