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Water Crisis and Air Pollution in Iran: Mismanagement and Environmental Consequences

Sia Rajabi
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Water Crisis and Air Pollution in Iran: Mismanagement and Environmental Consequences

Reza Ghasempour, deputy director of the Natural Environment Department of Alborz Province’s Environmental Organization, announced on Wednesday, January 15, that Salehiyeh Wetland has dried up. He stated that a 40-kilometer drainage system and the failure to supply its water rights have turned the area into a source of dust storms.

According to the state-run Tasnim news agency, Reza Ghasempour added that Salehiyeh Wetland plays a crucial role in controlling floods in Nazarabad County and is located in the lowest-lying areas of the province.

He further stated, “The drainage system created by the Qazvin Province Agricultural Jihad Organization to channel water to upstream farmlands has caused the wetland to dry up.”

Meanwhile, the state-run ILNA news agency reported a “critical water crisis” in Khorasan Province, where only 14% of the province’s dam capacity is filled, leaving 86% empty.

This situation has arisen due to a 25% decrease in rainfall compared to the long-term average, climate change, and increased water consumption.

According to the report, Kazem Jam, the public relations director of Khorasan Water and Wastewater Company, stated that since the beginning of the current water year in October 2024, the province has received only 33 millimeters of rainfall, while the long-term average is 44 millimeters.

Additionally, Ali-Asghar Dehghanpour, the director-general of Khorasan Meteorological Organization, highlighted the impact of global warming and climate change on reduced rainfall and rising temperatures. He emphasized the need to reduce fossil fuel use and expand renewable energy sources.

He added, “Although future rainfall can improve groundwater reserves and dam levels, drought caused by climate change requires serious action and a global commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.”

Iran’s Dam Water Reserves Shrink by 10% in Current Year

In another report from the state-run Etemad newspaper, Gholamreza Sabzghabaei, a lecturer at Khatam al-Anbia University, affiliated with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), stated that Iran’s average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius since 1950, while average rainfall has decreased by approximately 45 millimeters.

He noted that these changes have led to a decline in groundwater levels, land subsidence, and reduced snowfall in mountainous areas.

The university lecturer added that this situation has made Iran’s arid regions even drier and has reduced access to water resources. As a result of this crisis, there has been a migration of populations from the southern and central regions to the northern belt of the country, leading to increased deforestation in northern forests due to construction activities.

Additionally, in a press conference on January 13, Sedigheh Torabi, deputy head of the Environmental Protection Organization’s Human Environment Department, announced that 59% of Tehran’s air pollution originates from moving vehicles, while the remaining 41% comes from stationary sources.

Ahmad Taheri, head of the National Air and Climate Change Center at the Environmental Protection Organization, also stated that there are approximately 24 million polluting vehicles in the country, including cars and motorcycles. He warned that these pollution sources will lead to a significant increase in pollutants and negative environmental effects in the coming years.

Environmental activists and experts, emphasizing the Iranian regime’s neglect of climate change and its inability to manage natural resources, state that the critical conditions of water scarcity, energy shortages, and climate change highlight the urgent need for both immediate and long-term planning for water resource management, conservation, and the development of new technologies to combat drought.

 

Intensified U.S. Sanctions and Trump’s Potential Clampdown on Iran’s Oil Exports

Mehdi Hosseini
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Intensified U.S. Sanctions and Trump’s Potential Clampdown on Iran’s Oil Exports

The Economist, in an analytical report, examined the consequences of new U.S. sanctions on Iran’s oil exports and, referring to the potentially stricter policies of Donald Trump, predicted that China’s imports—which account for nearly all of Iran’s oil exports—would decrease by one million barrels per day. Iran’s oil exports had increased more than twelvefold in the past year compared to 2018, reaching 1.8 million barrels per day. However, even before Trump’s return to the White House, the situation had already begun to change, and this trend is expected to intensify.

The Economist reported that on November 25, the oil tanker Elva, registered under the flag of São Tomé and Príncipe, secretly loaded two million barrels of Iranian crude oil off the coast of Malaysia. Typically, the journey from this point to northeastern China, the likely destination, takes less than two weeks, but this time, it did not. On December 3, the United States blacklisted the tanker for violating sanctions. Now, six weeks have passed, and the vessel remains stranded in the same area. This is not an isolated case; since October, as the Biden administration intensified its crackdown on Iran-linked tankers, Iran’s crude oil exports to China—its primary buyer—have dropped by one-quarter, falling to 1.3 million barrels per day.

The Biden administration has increased pressure by targeting tankers transporting Iranian oil to China. Chinese ports, fearing U.S. sanctions, are now refusing to allow these tankers to dock. On January 6, the Shandong Port Group, which manages several major Chinese ports, including Qingdao and Yantai, announced a ban on docking for U.S.-sanctioned tankers. This supply reduction has led to Iranian oil being sold at a smaller discount relative to Brent crude, whereas three months ago, the discount was $6.50 per barrel. This price increase has pushed some small refineries out of the market, consequently reducing demand for Iranian oil.

Iran Races To Sell Its Stranded Oil In China To Strengthen Its Allies

The Iranian regime is attempting to replace sanctioned tankers with “clean” tankers, but the shadow fleet, which now primarily transports Russian oil, has expanded so much that there may not be enough ships left for Iran.

Trump will enter office in such a situation. He could add more tankers and traders to the blacklist. Another option under consideration by his team is to warn China that the U.S. will sanction ports receiving Iranian oil. The most aggressive option would be imposing heavy tariffs on China until Beijing halts its imports of Iranian oil.

The Economist wrote that although this measure would increase oil prices by $5 to $10 per barrel, the rise would be acceptable to American consumers while simultaneously benefiting U.S. oil producers.

The leaders of the Iranian regime have repeatedly stated that if they cannot export oil, no one else will be able to either.

 

Iran Races To Sell Its Stranded Oil In China To Strengthen Its Allies

Jubin Katiraie
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Iran Races To Sell Its Stranded Oil In China To Strengthen Its Allies

The Wall Street Journal reported that approximately three million barrels of stranded Iranian oil in China are being loaded for sale at sea. The report expressed concerns that the revenue from these sales might be used to bolster the Iranian regime’s proxy groups in the region.

On Saturday, January 11, the Wall Street Journal cited informed sources saying that after negotiations between Iran and China in late November and December, Beijing finally agreed last month to allow the departure of Iranian oil shipments.

According to the Wall Street Journal sources, China had previously not responded positively to Iran’s requests to remove its stranded oil from the country.

A few days ago, Reuters reported that Iran’s regime is attempting to release 25 million barrels of its oil, which have been stranded in two Chinese ports for nearly six years.

These 25 million barrels of oil were gradually delivered to China by 2018. However, starting in 2019, when the Trump administration canceled waivers related to such transactions, no buyers could be found for the oil, which became stuck in rented storage tanks in Dalian and Zhoushan ports.

Iran’s Efforts to Reclaim 25 Million Barrels of Stranded Oil in Chinese Ports

According to the Wall Street Journal, two oil tankers, Mid Star and CH Billion, recently headed to Dalian Port to load part of Iran’s oil.

The report stated that the Mid Star tanker left this port earlier this month with two million barrels of oil. Meanwhile, the CH Billion tanker is believed to still be at the port, preparing to load 700,000 barrels of oil.

According to the report, the Mid Star tanker left the port earlier this month with two million barrels of oil, while the CH Billion tanker is believed to still be at the port, preparing to load 700,000 barrels of oil.

Sources from the Wall Street Journal stated that the Mid Star tanker turned off its international signal for three days before arriving at Dalian Port. After loading its cargo, it headed toward South Korean waters to transfer its shipment to another vessel.

The Chinese official reiterated that Beijing opposes the “unilateral, illegal, and unreasonable sanctions imposed by the United States.”

Iran has turned to complex shipping networks to circumvent sanctions and sell its oil. Even if a Chinese buyer wants to purchase Iran’s stored oil, the cargo must first leave China and have its documentation altered to classify it as non-Iranian oil.

The Wall Street Journal reported that the value of Iran’s stranded oil in China currently exceeds $2 billion, but Tehran owes approximately $1 billion in rental fees for storage tanks in two Chinese ports.

The Journal, citing informed sources, noted growing concerns about the departure of three million barrels of Iranian oil from Chinese ports and Tehran’s efforts to sell them, allegedly managed by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC).

The report claims that Iran’s regime has allocated the revenue from this action to the IRGC, which is engaged in arming and funding the regime’s proxy groups across the Middle East.

Reports indicate that alongside its efforts to continue arming its supported groups in the Middle East, Tehran also provides financial support for rebuilding civilian infrastructure in areas under their control.

On Sunday, January 12, the Associated Press reported that Hezbollah, which had funded part of the $2.8 billion reconstruction after the 2006 war, has now begun compensating residents of southern Lebanon with financial assistance from Iran.

According to the report’s sources, some families have received payments ranging from $194 to $14,000. Hezbollah has also mobilized 145 reconstruction teams with over 1,250 engineers and hundreds of analysts and accountants, all funded by Iran.

 

Iran: Theft of “70,000 Liters” of Jet Fuel Per Day from Bandar Abbas Pipeline

Sia Rajabi
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Iran: Theft of “70,000 Liters” of Jet Fuel Per Day from Bandar Abbas Pipeline

Mojtaba Ghahramani, Chief Justice of Hormozgan Province in southern Iran has provided new details about a fuel theft pipeline in Bandar Abbas, revealing that the illegal pipeline branched off the main fuel transfer line and extended for two kilometers.

He stated that the illegal pipeline extracted approximately “70,000 liters” of jet fuel daily from the main line.

On January 11, Ghahramani told Iranian state television that inspections of the discovered equipment and evaluations of pipe corrosion and rust indicate that the thieves had been using this pipeline for a long time.

The Chief Justice of Hormozgan Province also said on January 11, “The value of the illegal pipeline itself is approximately 40 billion rials, and it appears that the thieves possessed the technical expertise and necessary information.”

He added that tests conducted by the National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company revealed a shortfall of “over 129,000 liters” in this pipeline over three days.

However, he did not explain how such a significant volume of daily fuel theft over an extended period went unnoticed by refinery officials and those overseeing the transfer routes.

Iranian regime officials do not address the reasons behind the growing fuel smuggling networks, instead portraying the arrests as a demonstration of the “capabilities” of police and security forces.

The low cost of fuel in Iran has always been cited as one of the main reasons for its smuggling.

Malek Shariati, a member of the Iranian parliament’s Energy Commission, revealed in a November 2024 television program that oil was being stolen directly from beneath a refinery pipeline in Iran.

Without naming the refinery or specifying the duration of the theft, Shariati stated that the refinery officials were “unaware for several years” that a branch had been tapped into the pipeline, allowing oil to be stolen.

This is not the first time reports of oil and petroleum product theft have emerged in Iran. Last year, the CEO of the Iranian Oil Pipeline and Telecommunications Company reported a “tenfold increase” in theft due to rising energy prices.

In March 2024, state television broadcast footage of a professional team that had dug a tunnel over two years to infiltrate the Tehran Oil Refinery.

 

Iran’s Health Ministry: 30,692 Deaths Due to Air Pollution Last Year

Mehdi Hosseini
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Iran’s Health Ministry: 30,692 Deaths Due to Air Pollution Last Year

Abbas Shahsavani, head of the Air Health and Climate Change Group at Iran’s Health Ministry, announced that based on monitoring a statistical population of 48 million, 30,692 deaths were attributed to air pollution last year.

He also stated that the number of visits to public health centers for non-infectious respiratory illnesses has increased by approximately 30% since December 22, 2024.

The number of deaths due to air pollution last year increased by 4,385, approximately 17%, compared to the previous year.

Previously, Shahsavani reported that an average of 26,307 deaths from air pollution were recorded in 2022, marking an increase of over 26% compared to 2021.

Under the law, the Health Ministry is required to examine the health, economic, and mortality impacts of air pollution with the goal of advocacy and effective measures to reduce these deaths. This effort began in 2017.

According to the latest Health Ministry review, the economic cost of deaths attributed to air pollution last year was estimated at $12 billion, equivalent to approximately 6 trillion rials.

Tehran Had Only 12 Days of Clean Air in 2024

The head of the Air Health and Climate Change Group at the Health Ministry also noted that the number of days with particulate matter levels below 2.5 microns in Tehran was only 12 days, equivalent to 3% of the past year.

Meanwhile, air pollution in Tehran continued for the tenth consecutive day. The air quality in Ahvaz, Mahshahr, and Abadan on Sunday was also classified as unhealthy and in the red category.

The air quality in several other Iranian cities, including Zanjan, Ramhormoz, and Shadegan, was deemed unhealthy for sensitive groups.

Over the past week, numerous cities in Iran experienced severe air pollution, with hundreds of individuals seeking medical attention for heart and respiratory conditions.

In several provinces, schools, universities, and government offices were either closed or shifted to remote operations.

Air Pollution in Iran Causes 50,000 Deaths Per Year

The head of the Air Health and Climate Change Group also mentioned that while the frequency of dust storms in western regions of the country has decreased over the past year, they have intensified in eastern areas, particularly in the city of Zabol.

He emphasized that Zabol and Iranshahr are the most polluted cities in the country.

According to Shahsavani, the two major cities of Isfahan and Mashhad are also experiencing high concentrations of air pollutants.

Sandstorms in Sistan and Baluchestan have intensified in recent years due to the drying up of rivers and wetlands in the region, particularly the Helmand, Hamoun, and Jazmourian wetlands.

 

Prices of Dairy Products Continue to Rise in Iran

Hoshang Amiri
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Prices of Dairy Products Continue to Rise in Iran

According to media reports, the pace of price increases in Iran has intensified in recent weeks, and alongside rising costs, people are also witnessing shortages of essential goods in the market.

In this regard, the state-run Hamshahri newspaper reported on Sunday, January 12, that dairy products have once again experienced a price hike in less than three months. The report emphasized that in recent days, dairy products have been supplied to stores and dairies at new prices. While the price increase in January is not as steep as in October, the repeated price hike within just three months is “highly unusual, as dairy prices previously changed on an annual basis.”

Ham-Mihan newspaper also reported on January 12 that field studies of markets indicate that some essential goods in the country have faced shortages and price increases in recent days.

According to Ham-Mihan, “The rise in the value of the dollar can have a multiple effect. Middlemen may exploit the situation by hoarding goods and engaging in price gouging to maximize their profits.”

Unprecedented Inflation And Rising Prices In Iran’s Food Market

The report also noted that rising prices of essential goods could lead to a decline in demand, with the impact being even more severe among low-income groups.

The newspaper highlighted a concern long raised by labor activists and health experts.

Ham-Mihan wrote in its report: “Studies show that the consumption of essential goods by low-income and even middle-income groups has declined compared to last year, and with rising prices, this decline will become even more noticeable.”

This issue has raised concerns, as even according to official statistics—which many experts believe are far from reality—a significant portion of the population consumes far less than the daily required 2,100 kilocalories.

The Ham-Mihan report also touched on other aspects of the crisis in the supply and distribution of essential goods, stating: “The increase in the preferential exchange rate could eliminate some domestic producers, increasing the risk of their bankruptcy.”

The report’s author examined the current economic crisis from a different perspective, arguing that the rising value of the dollar fuels inflationary expectations among the public. When people anticipate price increases in the near future, they tend to buy and stockpile more goods, which in turn exacerbates price hikes and even leads to shortages of certain items.

The point raised by the newspaper is visibly reflected in Iran’s market conditions today. For a long time, cooking oil has experienced both official price increases and rationed distribution. Moreover, the latest official reports indicate that cooking oil imports have decreased by more than 30%, despite the fact that over 90% of the country’s cooking oil supply relies on imports.

 

Iran’s Industries Face Complete Power Shutdown Amid Growing Crisis

Mehdi Hosseini
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Iran’s Industries Face Complete Power Shutdown Amid Growing Crisis

Ali-Mohammad Abouei, chairman of the board of the Iranian regime’s Steel Rolling Association, criticized the governance of the Iranian regime and stated that there is a possibility of a complete power outage for industries in the coming days.

According to the state-run Eghtesad Online website, Ali-Mohammad Abouei emphasized, “I have no good news for steel industry activists. There are reports from the Ministry of Industry, Mine and Trade and the Ministry of Interior indicating that orders have been issued to completely cut off power to industries.”

Abouei, sarcastically pointing out the contradictory behavior of the Minister of Energy, said, “When Mr. Ali-Abadi was Minister of Industry and Mines, he used to say that industrialists could legally sue the Ministry of Energy for damages caused by power outages, and now he himself is the Minister of Energy.”

Iran’s Power Plants Waste $30 Billion in Fuel Amid Energy Crisis

According to reports, Jahanbakhsh Shokri, head of the House of Industry, Mine, and Trade in Kermanshah, stated, “In the past 10 months, industries, especially steel industries, have operated for less than three months.”

Shokri added that the industry is on the verge of bankruptcy, and all industrialists are barely managing to keep going under dire financial strain.

The shutdown of industrial gas supplies and the halt in production in Iran have led to widespread protests from industry owners. The restrictions on electricity and gas supply have reached such a critical point that the Tejarat News website reported on December 18, 2024: “The shortage of electricity has created numerous problems for industries. Industrial parks, which in previous years experienced power outages in summer and gas shortages in winter, are now facing both simultaneously. This situation has led to the complete shutdown of these industrial zones, and inside the production halls, no sound is heard except the cawing of crows.”

 

Weekly Protest Against Executions Expands to 34 Iranian Prisons

Esmaeil Mohades
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Weekly Protest Against Executions Expands to 34 Iranian Prisons

On Tuesday, January 14, 2025, the 51st week of the “No to Executions Tuesdays” campaign witnessed a significant expansion, now encompassing 34 prisons across Iran. This week, the prisons of Talesh, the women’s ward in Adelabad Prison of Shiraz, Borazjan, and Joveyn joined the initiative, marking a notable escalation in participation.

Participants in the campaign issued a statement condemning the confirmation of the death sentences for four political prisoners. In their declaration, they stated: “With the intensification of economic, cultural, and political crises, we are witnessing widespread protests across various social groups daily. The ruling oppressors in Iran are well aware that this growing public discontent will soon transform into another wave of mass uprisings, pushing their despotic regime closer to collapse. In a misguided calculation, the regime has resorted to increasing executions to instill greater fear and prevent protests. Since last Tuesday alone, at least 17 individuals have been executed, and over 102 executions have been recorded since the beginning of January.”

The statement also highlighted the plight of death row inmates, noting: “Every day, prisoners sentenced to death for non-political crimes are hanged.” It added that political activists inside and outside prisons, along with grieving families, have strongly condemned these inhumane sentences.

Members of the “No to Executions Tuesdays” campaign emphasized that abolishing the death penalty is achievable only through solidarity and collective action. They called on all sections of society to join hands in opposing capital punishment and supporting the cause of justice and human rights.

The campaigners also released the names of the participating prisons during this significant week. On Tuesday, January 14, 2025, prisoners in these facilities engaged in hunger strikes to voice their opposition to executions. The prisons involved include:

– Evin Prison (women’s ward, wards 4 and 8)

– Ghezel Hesar Prison (units 3 and 4)

– Karaj Central Prison

– Greater Tehran Penitentiary

– Khorin Prison in Varamin

– Arak Prison

– Khorramabad Prison

– Esfahan Asadabad Prison

– Dastgerd Prison in Esfahan

– Sheiban Prison in Ahvaz

– Shiraz Military Prison

– Bam Prison

– Kahnuj Prison

– Tabas Prison

– Mashhad Prison

– Qaemshahr Prison

– Rasht Prison (men’s and women’s wards)

– Roodsar Prison

– Ardabil Prison

– Tabriz Prison

– Urmia Prison

– Salmas Prison

– Khoy Prison

– Naqadeh Prison

– Saqqez Prison

– Baneh Prison

– Marivan Prison

– Kamyaran Prison

– Haviq Talesh Prison

– Adelabad Prison of Shiraz (women’s ward)

– Joveyn Prison in Razavi Khorasan

– Borazjan Prison in Bushehr

The growing participation in this weekly campaign reflects a deepening resistance to the regime’s use of the death penalty as a tool of repression. The calls for justice, unity, and the abolition of capital punishment continue to resonate among both prisoners and the wider Iranian community.

 

Mohammad Abedini, Accused of Violating U.S. Sanctions, Returns to Iran

Sia Rajabi
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Mohammad Abedini, Accused of Violating U.S. Sanctions, Returns to Iran

Esmail Baghaei, spokesperson for the Iranian Foreign Ministry, stated that Mohammad Abedini Najafabadi, who had been detained in Italy, has returned to Iran following his release.

Abedini Najafabadi was arrested in Italy for violating U.S. sanctions against Iran by transferring drone technology to the country. He was scheduled to be extradited to the United States.

On Sunday, January 12, Italy announced that Carlo Nordio, the Minister of Justice, had submitted a request to the Milan Court of Appeals to cancel the detention of Mohammad Abedini Najafabadi.

Under Italian law, courts are obligated to comply with the Justice Minister’s request.

This move by the Italian Ministry of Justice came just four days after the release of Cecilia Sala, an Italian journalist detained by the Iranian government.

Italian journalist, Cecilia Sala

Ms. Sala had officially traveled to Iran with a journalist visa and had published reports about recent developments in Iran following the fall of Bashar al-Assad’s regime in Syria.

Some media outlets, citing a U.S. State Department spokesperson, reported that the detention of the Italian journalist by the Iranian regime was a retaliatory act for the arrest of Mohammad Abedini Najafabadi, an Iranian-Swiss citizen, in Italy.

The Italian Ministry of Justice stated in a declaration that under Article 2 of the extradition treaty between the United States and Italy, only crimes punishable under the laws of both countries can lead to extradition, and this condition, based on current documents, is not met.

The statement further explains that the U.S. accusation against Abedini Najafabadi of criminal conspiracy to violate the International Emergency Economic Powers Act does not align with any crimes classified under Italian law.

Regarding the two other charges—”criminal conspiracy to provide material support resulting in death to a terrorist organization” and “providing or attempting to provide material support resulting in death to a foreign terrorist organization”—the Ministry of Justice stated that no evidence has been presented to substantiate these claims.

According to the statement, the existing evidence only indicates that Abedini Najafabadi, through companies he worked with, was responsible for producing and trading “technological tools with potential but not exclusive military applications” with the Iranian government.

In recent years, Iranian security forces have detained dozens of foreign and dual nationals, mostly on charges of espionage and security-related offenses.

Human rights groups accuse the Iranian regime of “hostage-taking” to gain political leverage over other countries. The Iranian government denies these allegations.

 

30% Increase in Prices of 370 Medicines Since March

Mehdi Hosseini
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30% Increase in Prices of 370 Medicines Since March

Mehdi Pirsalehi, the head of the Iranian regime’s Food and Drug Administration announced a 30% increase in the price of 370 types of medicine, stating that, compared to the country’s inflation rate, “the absolute figure is not very high.”

According to the state-run Tasnim news agency, Pirsalehi also reported shortages of certain types of infant formula in the country. He explained that one reason pharmacies are reluctant to distribute infant formula is the low profit margin and the months-long delay in receiving payments from insurance companies.

This Ministry of Health official emphasized that out of approximately 3,800 types of medicine, 370 have increased in price. He noted that some injections that previously cost 60,000 rials have now risen to 190,000 rials (with 1 USD equaling approximately 820,000 rials). Meanwhile, the minimum monthly wage for a worker with two children in Iran is around $135.

Preferential Currency for Medicine Will Be Removed in Iran

Masoud Pezeshkian, the president of the Iranian regime, speaking at a conference of university and medical school presidents, acknowledged the issue but failed to present any solutions for improving healthcare in terms of workforce, medicine, or equipment. He stated, “Experience has shown that part of the foreign currency allocated for importing medicine and its subsidies gets lost. With this distribution method, justice cannot be achieved.”

Pezeshkian stressed that it is evident healthcare resources do not reach deprived areas.

Meanwhile, experts have increasingly warned of a worsening crisis in the pharmaceutical sector, predicting that medicine shortages will soon become one of the biggest problems for patients.

In this regard, Salman Eshaqi, a spokesperson for the Health Commission of the Iranian parliament, warned on December 22, 2024, that the number of critically scarce medicines had reached 116. He urged the government to take action, warning that if no measures were taken, shortages could increase tenfold by the end of the year.

Eshaqi stated, “At this rate, medicine shortages will multiply by ten by the end of the year, putting public health at serious risk.”

On October 20, 2024, the chairman of the Syndicate of Human Pharmaceutical Industries of Iran warned in a letter to the Minister of Health that the alarm for future medicine shortages had already been sounded. He urged the ministry to separate the budget for medicine and medical equipment from other hospital revenues.

Iran’s pharmaceutical industry, like many other industries, suffers from issues such as currency exchange rates, shortages of foreign currency and liquidity, delayed allocation of foreign exchange, numerous domestic and international difficulties in importing raw materials, unpaid debts from the government, and, ultimately, frequent power outages that halt production.

 

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